Science,English,and math 7th

【Cell in the nerve】

《There are one hundred and forty billion nerve cells in a person》

Both of the center nerve and the peripheral nerve are made up with nerve cells and others which support the nerve cells.

The nerve cell is a shape like the next. Two kinds of projection expand from a cell which has nucleus. One of the projection receives a stimulation which means an information from other cells and other projection sends the stimulation to the other cells.

There is synapse between the projection which sends the information to the other cells and the other cells which receive the...

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【Cell in the nerve】

《There are one hundred and forty billion nerve cells in a person》

There is a synapse between the projection which sends the information to the other cells and other cells which receive the stimulation. It is said that there are some one hundred and forty billion nerve cells in the human body. The one of which projection is long reaches a one meter. It’s a sciatic nerve 坐骨神経.

The nerve cell is called neuron, and is an unit which carries on a nerve action. In short, lots of the neurons connect and becomes a complicated circuit made up with nerve. It’s the nervous system.

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【Cell which secretes hormone】

《Roughly speaking there are three kinds of cell which secrete hormone》

A substance which is secreted from a cell and has an influence over a specific cell through the blood vessel is called hormone. The hormone is different from the nerve and moves over the whole body with the blood.

A cell which has a thing for receiving the hormone can receive hormone. Others which don’t have can’t receive.

When comparing the nerve with the hormone, let’s suppose that the nerve was a fixed-line phone. On the other hand, the hormone was a cell phone which contacts with...

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【Cell which secretes hormone】

《Roughly speaking, there are three kinds of cell which secrete hormone》

On the other hand, the hormone was a cell phone which contacts with wireless.

While sending the information in the nerve, a nerve fiber which resembles a telephone wire is indispensable, sending information with the hormone, a thing like an antenna is essential.

Cells which secrete the hormone develop at various organs in the human body, and the cells are roughly divided into three, according to the hormone which is secreted.

The one is the hormone which secretes as steroid. It’s in …

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【Cell which secretes hormone】

《Roughly speaking, a cell which secretes hormone is three kinds》

The hormone which is secreted as steroid is in adrenal cortex 副腎皮質, ovary, and testis.

The second is the hormone which secretes protein and is distributed through pituitary 下垂体 and pancreas. As to the place on pituitary, roughly speaking, it’s between the eye and the ear, according to an illustration on the book which I’m expressing just now.

The third is the one which changes from hydrogen atom into hydrocarbon. It’s in adrenal medulla 副腎髄質, and in thyroid gland 甲状腺.

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【Cell which secretes hormone】

《Roughly speaking, there are three kinds of cell which secrete hormone》

The thyroid gland is around the throat. The cell which secretes the hormone in the thyroid has a strange way of secreting. It secretes a substance once and absorbs it again and processes it. After that it is secreted to the blood vessel.

【iPS cell which can change into every kind of cell】

iPS cell can make an almighty cell which is able to be reborn again. It can change into every kind of cell and can make it from its own body.

There are various cells of which shape and function is…

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【iPS which can change into every kind of cell】

There are various cells of which shape and function arel different in the body, but each of the cells divided from the same fertilized egg originally.

After having divided, the cell changes into the one which is in charge of a special role. The fertilized egg has an ability which becomes into every kind of cell, but the more it divides, the less the ability of dividing becomes. After the cell is divided, it doesn’t have almighty nature which becomes into every kind of cell.

But Shinya Yamanaka professor in Kyoto university has made the iPS cell

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【iPS cell which can change into every kind of cell】

The professor has succeeded in it with additional genetic operation. As the iPS cell is made from its own cell, so there is no problem on ethics nor rejection, so everyone hopes it will make a great contribution to a medical treatment in the future.

【What is a stem cell?】

Do you know a creature called planaria? It’s classified as platyhelminth 扁形動物, and wherever it’s cut off from the body, each part which was cut off can revive as a single one. A cell which is in charge of the revival is the stem cell.

By the way, what about us?

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【What is a stem cell?】

How about our human body?

A fertilized egg on a person has an ability like that, but every time its division makes progress, the ability is limited and all the ability is lost completely. The division is done.

As a result, for example, when all the fingers are cut off, the fingers don’t revive from the part where they were cut off, but a person who is a grownup has also the stem cell.

The skin on the person has the stem cell, so when the skin is damaged and is lost, its function is able to be made up with.

Intestine has its own stem cell, and hair has the same one.

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【What is a stem cell?】

But the stem cell can’t provide us almighty cell which make up with all the functions like the planaria. Thus it is said that the stem cell has a limited revival ability in a divided organization.

On the other hand, in the beginning of the embryo on a person, after a fertilization cells on the embryo divide several times, it has a cell which can change into every kind of cell inside the body. It can change into every part of the body and is a kind of almighty cell, though it can’t change into a placenta 胎盤.

In this situation, taking up the cell from the lump of the…

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【What is a stem cell?】

…taking out the cell from the lump of cell direct inside the embryo and put it in a test tube and cultures it. The way was thought up.

The cell which is cultured like that is called ES cell, Embryonic Stem Cells. The ES cell is the typical one for the stem cell.

【ES cell which is made from the embryo in the beginning】

《ES cell is almighty like a fertilized egg》

The ES cell which is got from inside the embryo is pluripotent 多能性, so it can change into every kind of cell, but it can’t change into the placenta alone, for the placenta is made from layers on the cell…

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【ES cell which is made from the embryo in the beginning】

《ES cell is almighty like a fertilized egg》

…for the placenta is made from layers on the cell outside the embryo in the beginning so as to take nutrient from the mother’s body.

Taking out the cell from the embryo in the beginning and culturing it in a special condition in order to make the ES cell. Then a lump of ES cell appears. It is called a colony, and the colony increases limitlessly and divides into various cells according to the cultural condition.

But if making the cell return to the womb, it can’t make the placenta…

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【ES cell which is made from the embryo in the beginning】

《ES cell is almighty like an fertilized egg》

…so none of baby is born.

It has been thought that a medical treatment for revival is possible with the use of the ES cell, but it has never been realized at present, for there is an ethical problem and rejection, though its experiment has started in the U.S.A.October in 2010. It isn’t a practical use, but it is applied for a person for the first time.

What is the ethical problem?

As to the ES cell, a couple who received an artificial insemination 人工受精 offers an embryo in the beginning.

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【ES cell which is made from the embryo in the beginning】

《ES cell is almighty like an fertilized egg》

The embryo is cultured in a test tube and broken up, then each of them which was broken up is taken out.

Ethical problem is there isn’t few voice that destroying the embryo so as to study is regarded as questionable.

On the other hand, there is other problem on immune reaction.

When making a cell and an organ from the ES cell and transplanting them into a patient’s body, the cell and organ are regarded as alien substance by the immune system on the patient, so they are excluded.

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『Correction』

As to the last phrase in the last response, to be exact, there is possibility that they are excluded.

【iPS cell which is made from the skin】

《Without using the embryo, an ultimate almighty cell, which is the iPS cell》

Thus there are difficult problems on the development of the study for the ES cell, so lots of researchers tried to think of a new almighty cell which gets rid of the two problems. One of them is Shinya Yamanaka professor in Kyoto university.

He and other researchers succeeded in making a new almighty cell from the cell on the skin of a person October in 2007.

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【iPS cell which is made from the skin】

《Without using any embryo, it’s an ultimate almighty cell, which is the iPS cell》

Making the new almighty cell from the skin was done for the first time by the professors. What kind of thing is it?

The cell on the skin on a grown up and the ES cell is different altogether on the both of its shape and function, for a combination on genes which work actively each cell is different so much. It’s a combination on the protein.

Yamanaka professor thought like the next.

If pinpointing the genes which work actively in the ES cell and sending the same genes…

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【iPS cell which is made from the skin】

《Without using any embryo, an ultimate almighty cell, which is the iPS cell》

…and sending the same genes to the cell on the skin, the cell on the skin becomes the same situation as the ES cell, doesn’t it?

How was the gene sent there? A thing which carries the gene is already used in a genetic medical treatment, and it was used then. The one which carries the gene is called retrovirus.

By the way, the expression seems to be hard, besides, I’m hungry, and want to eat something, so I’m going to stop today.

Thank you for reading and have a good evening.

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【iPS cell which is made from the skin】

《Without using the embryo, an ultimate almighty cell, which is the iPS cell》

Other study was very useful so as to pinpoint the genes. The study was the next one.

The nucleus of a cell was divided, but the component in the cell of the ES cell can make the nucleus of the cell be the first situation which wasn’t divided.

As accepting the result on the study, Yamanaka professor supposed that the first genes were included in the component of the cell in the ES cell, and specified 24 genes which were necessary and indispensable from some hundred genes…

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【iPS cell which is made from the skin】

《Without using any embryo, an ultimate almighty cell, which is the iPS cell》

…and specified 24 genes which were necessary and indispensable from some hundred genes which were distinguished in the ES cell. Yamanaka professor verified the 24 genes one by one and reached four genes finally. It takes almost five years.

He reported that without using the embryo, he succeeded in making the almighty cell be born with a mouse for the first time in the world August in 2006. He named the almighty cell iPS cell. It’s an abbreviation of induced Pluripotent Stem…

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【iPS cell which was made from the skin】

《Without using any embryo, an ultimate almighty cell, which is the iPS cell》

The iPS cell is an abbreviation of induced pluripotent Stem cell. Furthermore, he reported he made the iPS cell on a person for which we were waiting for eagerly be born November in 2007.

『Yamanaka professor pinpointed the four genes in the next way』

He used the retrovirus which carried the gene, and made the retrovirus send 24 genes which were candidates to the cell on the skin one by one, but failed. None of the 24 genes caused the first situation by single one alone.

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【iPS cell which is made from the skin】

『Yamanaka professor pinpointed 24 genes in the next way』

He sent the 24 genes which were the candidates for the ES cell to the cell on the skin at once, so the cell on the skin became the first situation. It indicates that the combination on genes is included in the 24 genes which were necessary to become the first situation.

In the next, he sent 23 genes to the cell of the skin at once. There were 24 candidates for the first situation in the ES cell, and got rid of the single one alone, and sent all others to the cell of the skin. Then there were…

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【iPS cell which was made from the cell on the skin】

『Yamanaka professor pinpointed four genes in the next way』

Then there were two cases. The one caused the first situation, and the other didn’t. When the first situation wasn’t caused, the gene which was got rid of has high possibility which was indispensable for the first situation.

The Yamanaka professor deduced four genes which was indispensable for the first situation from the elimination.

When combined the four genes alone and sending them to the cell on the skin, the first situation was caused, and a cell which resembled the ES cell…

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【iPS cell which was made from the cell on the skin】

《Yamanaka professor pinpointed four genes in the next way》

…and a cell which resembles the ES cell well appeared. It’s the iPS cell.

The retrovirus which carried the gene has a possibility causing cancer, so we can’t preserve it for a long time. Instead of the retrovirus, plasmid was used. It’s a DNA of which shape was a ring and was in the cell like a colon bacillus 大腸菌. It is by far safer than the retrovirus.

I often used the phrase of the first situation. It means the first situation before the cell is divided. It’s 初期化 in Japanese.

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【After the iPS cell was discovered, the competition between international society becomes severe】

《Outcome on the study after the iPS cell》

Sixth international meeting on the stem cell was held in America in 2008. A debate on the iPS cell started in the evening, but even after the debate was over, questioners had a long line, and it prevented Yamanaka professor from leaving the meeting place.

Yamanaka professor has been paid attention from all over the world, and he was in the center of the topic in the national meeting this time. There are some noteworthy outcomes on the study which…

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【Outcome on the study after the iPS cell】

There are some noteworthy outcomes on the study which were reported in the academic meeting like the next.

《The iPS cell which takes over the nature on a patient》

The iPS cell was made from the cell on the skin of patients who suffered from Alzheimer’s disease, or who suffered from Parkinson’s disease. Some groups on the study in America and Germany reported like that.

The cell has a feature of taking over the nature on the patients. For example, if using the cell of the patient who suffers from Alzheimer’s disease, we’ll learn to make the nerve…

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【Outcomes on the study after the iPS cell】

《The iPS cell which takes over the nature on a patient》

…we’ll learn to make the nerve cell on the brain of the patient who suffers from Alzheimer’s disease when it is necessary. It is well known that Alzheimer’s disease transforms the nerve cell on the brain when its syndrome makes progress.

If using the cell originating from a person, especially taking advantage of the cell of the patient itself and developing its medicine, we can investigate the effect on the medicine and the side effect more efficiently than using cell on other animals.

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【Outcome on the study after the iPS cell】

《The iPS cell which takes over the nature on a patient》

Moreover, we can make the situation on the cell in the human body reappear, so it’s useful for the study on mechanism which causes a disease.

《Making kinds of cell change directly in the body》

One of the study which was paid the most attention was a direct programming to the beta-cell of the pancreas. It was done by American researchers.

The beta-cell is the one which secretes insulin, and insulin makes the blood sugar level drop. The researchers made a mouse which lost the beta-cell by...

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【Outcome on the study after the iPS cell】

《Making kinds of cell change direct in the body》

The researchers made a mouse which lost the beta-cell by gene manipulation, and sent some genes to the cell of the pancreas. Then kinds of cell changed direct in the body, reprogramming was done directly. The beta-cell which was lost came to life again then.

The way of sending genes to the cell and changing its kind was done when the iPS cell was made. When making the Pluripotent stem cell 多能性幹細胞 like the iPS cell from the beta-cell outside the body, there are lots of process of making, and its…

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【Outcome on the study after the iPS cell】

《Making kinds of cell change direct in the body》

…and its efficiency was also bad until then, but the researchers changed kinds of cell direct in the body and showed us a possibility of solving problems.

《International competition becomes severe》

By the way, if using a retrovirus which carries the gene, genome is damaged and there is possibility of causing cancer.

What is the genome?

A gene is added to chromosome, and the word of genome was born. The genome is all the information on the gene in DNA.

Instead of the retrovirus, other substances…

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【Outcome on the study after the iPS cell】

《International competition becomes severe》

Instead of the retrovirus, other substances were used, and protein was used and the iPS cell was made, for the genome is hard to be damaged by those things, but we have to make sure enough whether or not we can make use of them efficiently in the cell of a person.

On the other hand, there is a report that the iPS cell was made from not only the cell of the skin but the cell of fat, and the cell of blood. Furthermore, the study on medical treatment using the iPS cell has been made progress.

An effect on…

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【Outcome on the study after the iPS cell】

《International competition becomes severe》

An effect on medical treatment like Parkinson’s disease or hemophilia 血友病 by the iPS cell was made sure. Then a mouse was used.

On the other hand, clinical application by using the iPS cell has started in America, so the clinical application by using the iPS cell may come true in the near future.

It seems that the study on the iPS has made progress by far quicker than we expected. A professor said like the next.

The iPS cell was made and it was a breakthrough, and the study and development on the iPS…

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【Outcome on the study after iPS cell】

《International competition becomes severe》

…and the study and development on the iPS cell for the clinical application will accelerate as bio technology in the future. On the other hand, lots of mysterious things remain. While a cell was divided, it returned to the embryo with a slight factor like genes. Why? Our interest as science is no end.

The professor said like that.

The author said the researchers make the practical use on iPS cell in the medical field quicker and we hope it will open a new way to the science.

【Immune system on the human body】

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【Immune system in the human body】

Our body has been exposed to a pathogen like virus or bacteria constantly. When the pathogen invades into our body, an immune cell challenges a fight against the pathogen bravely and defends our body.

As to the immune cell, there is a macrophage which swallows bacteria and digests it, a killer of T cell which makes a cell infected with the bacteria commit suicide, and B cell which marks the pathogen for attack by using antibody.

The cells which have each strategy develop skillful teamwork. It’s a microscopic defensive war.

【A quest for immunity】

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【A quest for immunity】

《From a discovery on vaccine to a solution on the mechanism of immunity》

Immunity is a defensive system in our body which defends our body from various pathogens. We the human being have defended from infectious disease like virus by a medical treatment by using immune ability from the time when we didn’t know on its mechanism.

An English doctor, Edward Jenner did an epoch making report at the end of the 18th century. Smallpox 天然痘 was prevalent in Europe then, and Jenner was aware of the next thing.

There were some people who were engaged in agriculture suffered …

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【A quest for immunity】

《From a discovery on vaccine to a solution on mechanism of immunity》

There were some people who were engaged in agriculture suffered from cow pox, but they didn’t suffer from the small pox.

The cow pox is an infectious disease by a virus which is classified as the pox virus like the small pox, but its symptom on a person is slight.

Jenner made his son be inoculated 接種 against the cow pox, and after that he made his son be inoculated against the small pox. Then his son didn’t suffer from the small pox, for he took the virus of the cow pox in his body and got a power.

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【A quest for immunity】

《From a discovery on vaccine to a solution on mechanism of immunity》

The boy got the power which opposed against the virus on the small pox, in short he got an immunity.

Taking a weak pathogen in the body and preparing for stronger pathogen which would invade into the body. It’s an inoculation 予防接種 and vaccine.

By the way, what’s difference between the vaccine and inoculation?

The vaccine is a weak poisonous virus, and the inoculation is taking the vaccine in the body, according to an expression in the internet.

The mechanism on immunity has been studied closely…

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【A quest for immunity】

《From a discovery on vaccine to a solution on mechanism of immunity》

The mechanism on immunity has been studied closely in the latter of the 19th century.

When putting blood in a container and the blood is exposed to the air and leaving it alone in the temperature of the room, the blood coagulates 凝固 gradually, and yellow liquid is separated from the thing which the blood coagulates. We call the yellow liquid a blood serum 血清.

There was the blood serum on the blood taken from an animal which was infected by diphtheria. Shibasaburo Kitazato who was a Japanese…

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【A quest for immunity】

《From discovery on vaccine to a solution on mechanism of immunity》

Shibazaburo Kitazato who was a Japanese bacteriologist and a German one inoculated the blood serum on the blood of animal which was infected with diphtheria to other animal which was infected with the same disease. Then the sickened animal got well.

They thought substance which opposed against a toxin in the virus was included in the blood serum.

On the other hand, a Belgian bacteriologist discovered other substance which destroyed the virus in the blood serum.

Then as to a part which is in charge…

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【A quest for immunity】

《From a discovery on vaccine to a solution on mechanism of immunity》

As to a part which is in charge of immunity, there were two opinions then, the one was a molecule in the blood, and the other was a cell.

An experiment was done like the next by a French biologist. He stabbed a pin to a starfish, and the pin was swallowed by a big cell of the starfish, so he insisted on the theory of cell.

But it turned out that the immunity functions under close team play between the molecule and the cell at present, and the author expressed its mechanism in detail.

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is divided into a first unit and a second unit》

Various cells work out in our body in order to exclude a pathogen which invades in our body from the outside, but it doesn’t always mean that each of cells move around at will. Each of them is in charge of its role with a close team play, joined force, and defend our body.

The author said he was going to show us the member of the unit which was in charge of the immunity.

The immunity system is roughly divided into two stage. The immunity which confronts an invader at first is innate…

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is roughly divided into two stage》

The immunity which confronts an invader at first is innate immunity, but the first immunity can’t repulse all the invaders, so the second immunity takes over the others, and the second one is called adaptive immunity.

Cells which function are different kinds each of response on the immunity.

The innate immunity is in creatures from a long ago when they evolve. An invertebrate animal 無脊椎動物 defends its body with the innate immunity alone.

The one which plays an active part in the innate immunity…

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is roughly divided into two stages》

The one which plays an active part in the innate immunity is phagocytes 食細胞 like macrophage, a granulated ball like 好中球 and so on. The phagocyte swallows a pathogen like a virus and digests it in the cell.

There are some pathogens which aren’t excluded by the first stage, and the second stage which is the adaptive immunity takes over the other pathogens and attack them.

The adaptive immunity is more evolved immunity system than the innate immunity and a vertebrate animal alone has it.

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is roughly divided into two stages》

As the adaptive immunity is different from the innate one, each of cells has a target which it attacks, and it is fixed firmly. Leading parts in the adaptive immunity is T-cell and B-cell. Those cells take over their job from a cell like a stick belongs to the phagocyte 食細胞.

The cell like a stick which swallowed a pathogen moved from an infected place to a lymphatic organ where there is the T-cell, and showed a part of the pathogen which the cell like a stick swallowed to the T-cell.

Thus the T…

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is roughly separated into two stages》

Thus the T-cell knows of face the one which invades the body and be able to function so as to attack it. After that the T-cell becomes a killer T-cell and travels around the body and looks for the cell which becomes the pathogen.

The cell which becomes the pathogen also holds the part of pathogen on the surface of the cell, so the cell is found by the killer T-cell, and the killer T-cell which detects the infected cell kills it.

And there is other T-cell which becomes a helper. It makes B cell…

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is roughly separated into two stages》

The helper T-cell makes other cells like the B-cell, macrophages and the killer T-cell work.

On the other hand, the B-cell secretes a protein called antibody and attacks the pathogen and its toxin. To my surprise, there are sorts of antibodies, and its shape is in an infinitive variety. Each of antibodies has an adaptive shape in order to attack the pathogen.

The pathogen and toxin which invade the body stick to the hand of the antibody which stick out on the surface of the B-cell. The B-cell…

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【Innate immunity and adaptive immunity】

《Immunity system is roughly divided into two stages》

The B-cell alone has antibodies which fit to the toxin, and increases with the help of the helper T-cell and becomes mature. It’s divided. The B cell which divided secretes one after another the same antibody as on the surface of it.

The antibodies which were secreted go out of the lymphatic organ and go around the body. Whenever they discover the pathogen, they stick to it. The pathogen which is stuck by the antibody can’t function, so it becomes a target for attack by the macrophages.

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【Cells which work in the innate immunity】

《Macrophage》

It swallows bacteria like the pathogen or other cell which was broken and old and digests them. It shows the T-cell the part of pathogen which it digests.

《The cell like a tree》

Oh! I made a mistake. I used to express a cell like a stick before. It was in the wrong. It’s not the cell like a stick but the cell like a tree. I’m sorry for it.

It also swallows the pathogen and shows the T-cell the part of the pathogen which it digested like the macrophage, but its ability of showing is by far stronger than the macrophage. It’s from dozen…

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【Cells which work in the innate immunity】

《A cell like a tree》

Its ability of showing T-cell is from dozen times to hundredth times stronger than the macrophage.

《Granulocytes 顆粒球》

It has three kinds and each of them swallows and digests the pathogen. They belong to the white blood corpuscle, and their number is more than others in the white blood corpuscle, especially 好中球 accounts for more than 90% in the granulocytes.

There are granules among the granulocytes, and the granule is an enzyme which kills the pathogen. Active enzymes are used so as to kill the pathogen.

The 好中球 has a…

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【Cells which work in the innate immunity】

《A cell like a tree》

The 好中球 has a protein which makes the pathogen be damaged, and secretes the protein which acts on killing a parasitic worm. In addition, 好塩基球 secretes histamine C, and the histamine C increases permeability in the blood.

Permeability is a nature on an organic or inorganic film which makes water or liquid go through. A sneeze, nasal inflammation 鼻炎, or asthma are caused by the histamine.

【Other cells which work in the adaptive immunity】

《Killer T-cell》

T-cell is mainly stimulated by the cell like the tree and is divided.

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【Cells in the adaptive immunity】

《Killer T-cell》

The killer T-cell travels around the human body and discovers a cell which is infected with the pathogen and secretes a protein, and the infected cell commits suicide by the protein.

《Helper T-cell》

It is stimulated by the cell like the tree and is divided like the Killer T-cell. It makes the B-cell stimulate and makes it be divided. It makes macrophage and the killer T-cell work.

《B-cell》

A projection is stuck out of the film of the B-cell and when the toxin is united with the projection, the B-cell starts to divide, and secretes other…

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