Science,English,and math 7th

【Kidney】

《Kidney makes a drum of raw urine》

…but real urine which is made in the kidney a day is no more than 1.5 liter, for the kidney absorbs 99% of the raw urine again.

It seems to be useless at first sight, but as the large amount of the raw urine is made, the component on the raw urine is able to be increased or to be decreased minutely. The component on the total amount of the raw urine which is made use of is able to be changed so much.

Kidney isn’t only the organ which excretes waste as urine but is in charge of making use of unnecessary thing in the body. It’s the organ which…

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【Kidney Ⅰ】

《Kidney makes a drum of raw urine》

Kidney is the organ which is in charge of recycling.

《Useful material in the raw urine is absorbed again in the tubule 尿細管》

At first, the blood is purified in an organ like a ball made of thread in the kidney. The organ is called 糸球体. Then the component of the cell like a red blood corpuscle, a white blood corpuscle, a blood platelet and a big protein can’t pass through the filter.

After the raw urine was purified, almost all of useful sugar content and amino acid are absorbed again in the tubule. In addition, a component which is …

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【Kidney Ⅱ】

《Useful material in the raw urine is absorbed again in the tubule》

In addition, a component which is indispensable for maintaining the life like calcium, ion, and water is controlled well in relation to the amount of absorption again. Furthermore, an exquisite feedback system which controls the purification in the organ like the ball made of thread automatically exists in the kidney.

The raw urine which was purified in the organ like the ball made of thread comes back through the tubule of which shape U near the organ like the ball made of thread.

Then two blood vessels which…

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【Kidney Ⅱ】

《Useful material in the raw urine is absorbed again in the tubule》

Then two blood vessels which are connected with the cell like the ball made of thread and the tubule are stuck. Information on the blood and raw urine is acquired from the place where they are stuck, so the amount of purification is controlled.

If the amount of the raw urine is too much, the blood vessel which comes into the cell like the ball made of thread shrinks, so the amount of raw urine decreases.

If the blood pressure in the cell like the ball made of thread is low….

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【Kidney Ⅱ】

《Useful material in the urine is absorbed in the tubule》

If the blood pressure in the cell like the ball made of thread is low for the purification, a material called renin is secreted, and the material makes the blood pressure raise and the amount of purification increases.

A professor who specializes in the kidney in university said like the next.

It has never been clear how the material called renin is secreted from the wall of the blood vessel which comes out of the cell like the ball made of thread. The place is one of the most mysterious in the human body.

【Bone】

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【Bone】

《Old bone is broken and is replaced for new one》

The bone is alive. We have an inorganic image on the bone, but the old bone has always been replaced for the new one like the other organs.

Old bone is bitten by osteoclasts 破骨細胞 and osteoblasts 骨芽細胞 forms the bone again. It’s indispensable function which prevents the bone from deteriorating.

The bone not only supports the body but stores calcium. Calcium is indispensable material for the life which is in charge of sending information in the cell.

For example, muscle shrinks due to a change on density of calcium ion.

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【Bone】

《Old bone is broken and is replaced for new one》

The bone releases calcium in the blood and supports the activity on life. It plays an important role like that.

On the other hand, a bone marrow which is a soft tissue in the bone has a different function from the bone itself. There are cells which make other cells on blood like the red blood corpuscle and white blood corpuscle, or another cells which make bone, fat, cartilage 軟骨 in the bone marrow.

It turned out that those cells in the bone marrow can change into various other cells in the organ beyond their original ability.

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【Bone】

《Old bone is broken and is replaced》

It has been clear according to recent study.

The one who specializes in the cell and reproduction said like the next.

It proved that the cells in the bone marrow divide into skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and a nerve cell. It seems that the cell in the bone has more multi function for specialization than we expect.

《The bone is strong because of the union on collagen》

The bone is so strong that it can withstand an impact from the outside a little.

If comparing it with a building, a steel frame is equivalent to a fiber in collagen, and …

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【Bone】

《The bone is strong because of the union in collagen》

…and concrete is equal to a chemical compound on calcium. If there is the calcium alone in the bone, the bone will be weak.

As to molecular mechanism on the toughness of the bone, it was unclear for a long time, but an interesting result on the study was reported in 2001 that an union in collagen is one of factor on the toughness of the bone.

If receiving an impact on the bone, the union among the collagen is broken, an energy will be scattered, so the whole network of the collagen is protected.

When the union is formed again…

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【Bone】

《The bone is strong owing to the union in collagen》

When the union is formed again, more complicated one is done, so it has been thought that the bone becomes stronger.

【Muscle】

《Muscle is made of two kinds of fiber》

There is the one who is good at a marathon, or other who is good at a sprint, but almost none of us are good at both of the competitions, for the muscle which is used in each of the races are different.

It’s a fast muscle which is necessary for the sprint, for the muscle contracts powerfully.

On the other hand, the muscle which is advantageous for the marathon is…

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【Muscle】

《Muscle is made of two kinds of fiber》

…the muscle which is advantageous for the marathon is slow one. If comparing it with the fast muscle, the slow one is forced to shrink slowly and weakly, but it can do an exercise for a long time.

If the movement on shrinkage continues, a lactic acid 乳酸 which makes us feel tired is apt to pile easily. When the lactic acid is piled to some extent, the muscle can’t shrink. It’s the reason why the fast muscle doesn’t have stamina.

On the other hand, the slow muscle has lots of protein which stores oxygen. When the muscle breaks down an energy…

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【Muscle】

《Muscle is made of two kinds of fiber》

When the muscle breaks down an energy called glycogen without having any oxygen, the lactic acid is made, but as the slow muscle has lots of protein which stores oxygen, the glycogen is broken down into water and carbon dioxide completely, so the lactic acid is hard to be piled. It’s the reason why the slow muscle has stamina.

The protein in the slow muscle which has lots of oxygen plays a role of catching oxygen with the red blood corpuscle in the blood. The protein is called myoglobin. The myoglobin resembles hemoglobin. Myo means the muscle

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【Muscle】

《Muscle is made of two kinds of fiber》

Hemoglobin makes the blood red, and the myoglobin also makes the muscle red, so the slow muscle has another name, red muscle. If comparing, the fast muscle is white, so it’s called white muscle.

Almost all of the muscles is mixed with red one and white one, so the muscle looks pink.

When the fiber in the muscle is divided, it turned out that two kinds of slender fiber line up alternatively. They slide each other, so the whole muscle can shrink. They are like a telescope which expands and contracts. The two of fibers look like a molecular…

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【Muscle】

《Muscle is made of two kinds of fiber》

The two of fibers look like molecular linear motor. Its size is very tiny, micro.

【Blood vessel and lymph vessel】

《Blood vessel and lymph vessel which are set up in the whole body》

If tying all the blood vessels together including capillary vessels 毛細血管, its whole length reaches no less than 6000 kilometers. Speaking of 6000 kilometers, it’s almost same length as the radius on the earth.

The blood passes oxygen and nutrient to the cells on the whole body and receives carbon dioxide and waste from the cells. The cell on immunity in the…

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【Blood vessel and lymph vessel】

《Blood vessel and lymph vessel which set up in the whole body》

The cell on immunity in the blood fights against a pathogen which invades into the human body.

Capillary vessel of which diameter is no more than hundredth millimeters spreads over the whole body including inside the bone. The place where there is none of the blood vessel limits to a cartilage, the crystalline lens in the eye, and conjunctiva 結膜.

Except for the blood vessel, lymph vessel is also set up in the whole body. Lymph fluid which flows in the lymph vessel is light yellow liquid.

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【Blood vessel and lymph vessel】

《Blood vessel and lymph vessel which set up in the whole body》

The lymph fluid is a liquid component which the red blood corpuscle is removed from the blood. The liquid component which oozing from the capillary tube goes into the lymph tube, then it’s called the lymph fluid.

The lymph fluid contains the cell on immunity which fights against the pathogen like the blood.

【Cell of immunity】

《Cell of immunity which always fights against cancer cells》

The immune cell basically attack an alien substance which isn’t made in the body like virus and bacterium.

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【Cell of immunity】

《Cell of immunity which always fights against cancer cells》

An ordinary cell changes into the cancer cell, but it proved that the immune cell attacks the cancer cell, so it means that the cancer cell is also alien substance for the human body, especially the immune cell called natural killer, NK, always patrols around the human body, and whenever it finds the cancer cell, it attacks and prevents us from being cancer.

It is said even if having never suffering from any sickness, the cancer cell is always born, but it doesn’t always appear as sickness, for the immune cell…

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【Cell of immunity】

《Cell of immunity which always fights against cancer cell》

…for the immune cells prevent the cancer cell from increasing, but the immune cell isn’t always almighty, so the cancer cell covers its surface with a chain of sugar content. It prevents the immune cell from recognizing it’s the cancer cell. Thus the cancer cell tries to escape from the attack by the immune cell, using every trick.

So a trial of making the immune cell more active and using it for the treatment on cancer has been paid attention recently. How is it done?

The immune cell is taken from the human body

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【Cell of immunity】

《Cell of immunity which always fights against cancer cells》

After that increasing the number of immune cells and raising its function, and returning the immune cells to the human body. The cancer is cured like that. The cure has been done with a combination of the treatment in the past in the actual medical spot.

《Making antibody which organizes various genes》

An immune cell called B-cell drives antibody into the pathogen as if the antibody was a missile and kills the pathogen. A gene which makes the antibody of B-cell can organize for itself again so as to resist…

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【Cell of immunity】

《Making antibody which can organize various genes》

A gene which makes antibody of B-cell can organize again for itself so as to compete with numberless of pathogen which continues to evolve. The gene is a plan for a life, so it doesn’t change easily in an ordinary cell, but the B-cell rewrites the gene which is the plan for the antibody, so masters an ability of making a tremendous number of antibody.

【Eye】

《Eye doesn’t miss even a grain of light》

Eyes are often compared with a camera, but as to a viewpoint of catching a video, it’s closer to a video camera.

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【Eye】

《Eye doesn’t miss even a grain of light》

The light which goes into the eye is through a crystalline which plays a part as lens, and is collected at a retina 網膜 which is equivalent to a film. The stimulation is changed into an electric signal by a work on the photoreceptor cells of retina, and the electric signal is sent to the brain.

When taking a picture, without holding the camera steady, the picture will be blurred, so the camera has function preventing us from happening like that, and our eyes have the same function.

If opening a book in front of us, and shaking our head, then…

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【Eye】

《Eye doesn’t miss even a grain of light》

…then even if trying to read the book, we can do it as long as we shook a little. Why can we do it?

There is the semicircular canals 三半規管 in the inner part of the ear, and it recognized the movement of the head, so the cerebellum 小脳 handles the information, so the muscle which sticks to the eyeball makes the eyeball move to directions which are opposite to the movement on our head.

Sensitivity on light and shade of the eye is so very good. It’s marvelous. The pupil is equivalent to a diaphragm 絞りon the camera. The pupil is expanded and…

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【Eye】

《Eye doesn’t miss even a grain of light》

The pupil is expanded and contracted, so the light which goes into the eye is controlled. It is done until some 16 times. Furthermore, in the retina its sensitivity changes into million times by the exquisite mechanism of the photoreceptor cells 視細胞.

As to the photoreceptor cells, there are two kinds. The one which distinguish difference between colors and the other which recognizes light and shade.

Why can our eyes recognize even a slight light in the darkness? Its secret is in a molecule called rhodopsin in the photoreceptor cell which …

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【Eye】

《Eye doesn’t miss even a grain of light》

Its secret is in a molecule called rhodopsin in the photoreceptor cells which recognizes light and shade. Its sensitivity is so high that it is said it can detect even a photon which is a grain of the light.

When receiving the light, the rhodopsin changes its structure on the molecule and sends its signal to the cell. The signal is sent to intermediaries one after another, and every time when the signal is received, the number of molecule which receives signal increases.

Finally, this signal becomes a half million times a second.

【Ear】

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【Ear】

《Dancing cell amplifies the signal on sound》

When diving into the pool, we can seldom hear the sound on the water, for the greater part of vibration in the air which is sound wave is reflected on the surface of the water.

There is an inner ear in the ear, and the inner ear is filled with lymph fluid, so the sound wave is rebounded if as it is, but three occicles 耳小骨 which is the most tiny bone in the body transmits the sound wave which was sent from the eardrum to the inner ear powerfully. It’s the function on lever 梃子.

But to my sorrow, I’m not sure that how the lever functions…

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【Ear】

《Dancing cell amplifies the signal on sound》

…I’m not sure that how the level functions in this situations, so I can’t express it in detail.

It’s inner hair cell which changes the vibration on sound into an electrical signal in the inner ear. It’s the cell having hairs.

When a sound wave shakes in the inner ear, a flow is caused in the lymph fluid and the hair in the inner hair cell detects the flow and sends the signal to the nerve. It has been thought like that.

Outer hair cells which is other one having hairs plays an important role. It heightens our sensitivity on the sense...

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【Ear】

《Dancing cell amplifies the signal on sound》

Outer hair cell heightens our sensitivity on the sense of hearing some thousand times. If it's damaged, we’ll be difficulty in hearing. The outer hair cell sticks the hair to a film called a tectorial membrane 蓋幕.

When the vibration of the sound in the inner ear is sent and the place around the outer hair cell shakes, the hair detects the vibration, so the electric current flows into the outer hair cell.

Then the outer hair cell expands and contracts in a direction of amplifying the vibration around the place of the outer hair cell as...

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【Ear】

《Dancing cell amplifies the signal on sound》

Then the outer hair cell expands and contracts in a direction of amplifying the vibration around its place as if it danced.

To my surprise, the outer hair cell synchronizes a sound wave of high frequency on 20 kHz and expands and contracts. In short it can do movement of expanding and contracting twenty thousand times a second.

The protein which is in charge of expanding and contracting on the outer hair cell as a motor. Its existence was recognized in 2000. The protein detects an electrical potential and changes its shape quickly.

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【Ear】

《Dancing cell amplifies the signal on sound》

The protein is a kind of a high quality motor made of molecule.

A professor who studies the mechanism in the inner ear has thought like the next.

The speed on the movement of expansion and contraction in the outer hair hair is by far quicker than the cell on heart muscle which also expands and contracts in the same way. If its study makes more progress, industrial application like a raw material on micro machine will be possible in the future. The micro machine is very tiny machine.

《The cell having hairs is in charge of balance》

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【Ear】

《The cell having hair is in charge of balance》

There is the semicircular canals 三半規管 next to cochlea 蝸牛. Three tubes of which shape is a loop is stuck to the root of the semicircular canals, and the cell having hair detects the movement on rotation in the head.

Let’s suppose that there was some water in a washbasin. When rotating the washbasin, the water in the washbasin hardly rotates, so when we rotate our head, the inner wall in the semicircular canals moves, but the lymph fluid which is in the semicircular canals hardly moves.

It means that then the lymph fluid flows the place…

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【Ear】

《The cell having hair is in charge of balance》

It means that the lymph fluid flows the place around the cell having hair and the flow makes the hair lean, so we can detect that our head rotate.

When our head is tilted, it is detected by a bag of which shape is a ball and the other of which shape is an egg between the semicircular canals and cochlea 蝸牛. There is the cell having hair there, and a small stone is on the cell having hair. It’s a otolith 耳石.

When our head is lean, the otolith is lean, so the hair of the cell having hair is also lean. The otolith is on the cell having hair.

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【Ear】

《The cell having hair is in charge of balance》

As a result, we can detect our head is lean.

《Small muscle protects us from a big sound》

The sound wave makes the ear drum vibrate, and the vibration is sent to three occicles 耳小骨. The last of the three occiles sends the vibration to the cochlea through the lymph fluid, at last the sound wave reaches us.

The occiles has some muscles, and the muscles play a part as cushion when suddenly big sound comes there. The muscles protect our ear.

【Nose】

《Can a person detect pheromone?》

The nose of a person is inferior to the one of a dog but…

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【Ear】

《Can a person detect pheromone?》

…but it’s a sharp organ which detects molecules on smell in the air. Even if the molecules are no more than ten billionth in the air of 1 liter. In addition, it is said we distinguish the smell from three thousand to ten thousand of kinds.

A hollow spreads over inner part on the hole of the nose, and the cells which feel the smell are collected there. When catching the molecules on the smell, its stimulation is sent to the brain.

On the other hand, a report has been done recently one after another. Can we smell pheromone, can’t we? The report said.

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【Nose】

《Can a person detect pheromone?》

As to insects, pheromone is a secretion which urges them reproduce. As to a person, a dormitory effect is well known. When living in a small space like the dormitory, a menstrual period is in harmony among women. It has been thought they have been influenced on the pheromone.

A mouse has the exclusive organ which detects the smell, and we the people have its trace in the nose, but it seems that its nerve isn’t connected with the brain. The organ has almost degenerated.

It has been mysterious that whether or not we the people have the organ which…

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【Nose】

《Can a person detect pheromone?》

It has been mystery that whether or not people have the organ which detects pheromone, but an interesting result on study was reported in 2000. Mouses have a gene which receives the pheromone, and a similar gene has been found from a person.

The one who specializes in the pheromone has framed a hypothesis like the next.

The mammal has an exclusive organ for the pheromone, but fish has the organ which detects the smell and the other which detects the pheromone in the same place. Two of them are intermingled in the same place. In the process of…

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【Nose】

《Can a person detect pheromone?》

In the process of evolution, it had been thought the organ which detects the pheromone departed from the organ which detected the smell.

The part of organ which detects the pheromone may have been left in the nose of us the people. There is a possibility that we the human race detect the pheromone.

By the way, when taking off and landing by airplane, we are sometime hard to listen to. Then opening our mouth enough and expanding the entrance on Eustachian tube 耳菅, difference on pressure both of outside and inside disappears from…

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【Nose】

《Can a person detect pheromone?》

…difference on pressure both outside and inside disappears from our ear drum, so we can listen to sound easily, for the nose and ear are connected.

【Tongue】

《A receptor which detects taste is discovered》

Saliva is digestive juice which breaks down starch, but the food reaches the stomach, the effect on saliva vanishes then. A professor in university said that the saliva turns the starch into sweet sugar content and improves our taste, urging our appetite. Its role is bigger than the digestive juice.

The sense of taste is detected by the chemical…

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【Tongue】

《A receptor which detects taste is found》

The sense of taste is detected by a chemical sensor which exists on the inner wall on the tongue and mouth. It’s called taste buds 味蕾. Its shape resembles a bud on flower, so we call it like that.

There is a cell on the taste in the taste buds, and the receptor on taste of the surface on the cell detects the material of taste, and its stimulation is sent to the brain by the nerve beneath the cell on taste.

How does the cell on taste send the signal on taste to the brain? What’s the process? Does the cell taste work out against what kind…

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【Tongue】

《A receptor which detects taste is found》

Does the cell on taste work out against what kind of material?

There are lots of things which we can’t understand in the level of molecules.

Basic element on palate 味覚 is salty taste, sweetly taste, bitter tasty, sour tasty, and taste. The taste is familiar to us the Japanese.

We find the soup stock on sea tangle こんぶ good, and it has been discovered its origin is glutamic acid which is a kind of amino acid in Japan in 1908. The original taste is named UMAMI, and the UMAMI has been used as international word which originated from Japan.

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【Tongue】

《A receptor which detects the taste is found》

The study which made the UMAMI be recognized as the fifth sense of taste was reported in 2000. The origin on UMAMI, molecule on the receptor made of amino acid was identified then.

Besides, each of people has different gene of the receptor on taste. It seems to cause difference on the sense of taste among the people.

The amino acid is the origin on protein and is indispensable nutrient for a life. The ability which detects the UMAMI played an important role in a severe competition for evolution. It has been thought like that.

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【An illustrated reference book on cells in the human body】

The first chapter is over and we looked at various organs in the body. Lots of cells gather and the organs are made. Our body is made of a large amount of cells of which shape and function is different.

The eye has a group of cell which functions its role, and the liver has the same one. Each of cells has played a specialized role.

On the other hand, an almighty cell which changes into all kinds of cell has been paid attention. It’s iPS cell, it was made from the cell on the skin of a person.

What’s kind of the cell is the iPS…

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【An illustrated reference book on the cells in human body】

What’s kind of cell is the iPS cell? What’s kind of possibility in it?

The second chapter begins from now on. Its content is like the next.

Cells which makes a person. Both of shape and function is an infinitive variety. All kinds of cell which hide themselves in our body are introduced thoroughly.

The iPS cell which can change into every kind of cell. Almighty cell which is able to be born again is made from its own body.

【Cells which make a person】

《Both of shape and function is an infinitive variety. All kinds of cells…》

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【Cells which make a person】

《Both shape and function is an infinitive variety. All kinds of cell which hide themselves in our body are expressed thoroughly》

Our body is made of cells which are more than 270 kinds. Lots of cells gather together and both our brain, our eye, our intestine, our bone and muscle are made.

There is a cell of which head has hair, other cell which is like a thin film, and another which expands lots of projections. Its shape has its own. Not only the shape but its function is various.

In the eye, cells which detect the light and shade from a light, and color.

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【Cells which make a person】

《Both shape and function is an infinitive variety. All kinds of cell in our body are expressed thoroughly》

The trachea has a cell which secretes viscous liquid so as to bind alien substance, and other cell which sweep it out of the human body.

The liver has cells which can play three parts of metabolism, secreting digestive juice, and detoxification. Groups of cell which gather there in each of organs and function, so play their own part in the body.

By the way, what is the metabolism? In short, an old thing changes into a new one. Then some energy is consumed.

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【Cells which make a person】

《An illustration》

There is an illustration on a nerve cell. The nerve cell sends a piece of information on stimulation to the brain or to the spinal cord. Its color is red. Lots of projections are expanded so as to send or to receive information from other cells, so its shape is original.

There are other groups of cell which support the nerve cell in the brain and in the spinal cord. Their color are green or blue.

【Stem cell on the surface of the skin】

《Stem cell divides in its whole life》

There is a cell which continues to divide forever in the human body.

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【Stem cells on the surface of the skin】

《Stem cell divides its whole life》

It’s a stem cell. It’s specialized to some extent, but doesn’t reach the final shape nor final function, so it can divide in its whole life.

The existence on the stem cell has been known on the surface of the skin, on the intensional epithelium 腸上皮 or on the bone mallow from a long ago, but it has been discovered recently one after another from various organizations or from various organs like a cornea 角膜 in the eye, in the heart, or in the nerve.

The cell of intensional epithelium has a function of absorbing water…

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【Stem cells on the surface of the skin】

《Stem cell continues to divide in its whole life》

The cell of intensional epithelium 腸上皮 has a function of absorbing water and nutrient and defends the organization in the intensional tube and builds a barrier of viscous liquid so as to avoid excessive response for immunity against bacteria in the intenstines.

The cell is dead and disappears owing to unexpected external cause or its life span, but the stem cell divides and a new cell is born, so the cell which is replaced with the dead one is supplied to the organ and organization.

For example…

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【Stem cell on the surface of the skin】

《Stem cell continues to divide in its whole life》

For example, the surface of the skin comes off as dirt, but the skin doesn’t vanish thanks to the stem cell which is on the surface of the skin.

The skin is divided into three layers. From the surface of the skin, it’s epidermis 表皮, dermis, 真皮, and subcutaneous tissue 皮下組織. The stem cell of the epidermis is the lowest layer on the epidermis.

The dirt on the skin is dead cell of the epidermis which comes loose and falls. Without being born the cell on the epidermis and it continues to be dead…

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【Stem cell on the surface of the skin】

《Stem cell continues to divide in its whole life》

…the epidermis could have disappeared at once, but as to the surface on the skin, the stem on the epidermis divides and new cell is born one after another, so it doesn’t vanish.

【Stem cell on the epithelium 上皮 of the small intestine】

《The number of cells have been kept due to the stem cell》

As to the surface on the small intestine, the stem cell on the epithelium of the small intestine makes a new cell replace without stopping.

There is a projection and a cavity in the small intestine. The surface…

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【Stem cell on the epithelium of the small intestine】

《The number of cell has been kept thanks to the stem cell》

The surface made of the unevenness is covered with the cell on epithelium of the small intestine.

The stem cell on the epithelium of the small intestine is in the cavity. The cell which divides from the stem cell moves to the top of the projection or the bottom of the cavity, and becomes various cells on the epithelium of the small intestine.

When the stem cell divides and the new cell is born, in the projection the old one is pushed up to the summit. Then the oldest cell…

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