Science,English, and math 9th

【Winter】

《In cold winter, it’s fine and dry on the side of the Pacific Ocean, and snow falls on the side of Japan Sea》

Then water is warmed by the sunlight in the Indian Ocean, and a cyclone is caused there. We can see it with a satellite image in the round picture where there is the equator in the center, Japan Island is above the equator, and Australia under the equator.

There is a white cloud like a streak slightly around Hokkaido prefecture. It’s snow clouds.

『Column, except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons?』

The four seasons are on the earth alone, and there isn’t…

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『Column,except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons in other ones?』

…and there aren’t the four seasons in other planets…it’s in the wrong, for example, there is the Mars outside the earth. It is well known the Mars has a change on the season. The Mars is half as big as the Earth. Its one year is some six hundred eighty seven days, and the day is also some twenty four hours. It’s almost as same as the earth.

The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of about 23.4 degrees, on the other hand, the Mars is 25.2 degrees, so the both of the planets resemble each other.

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『Column, except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons in other ones?』

As a result, the change on the four seasons occurs on the Mars as well.

Every planet has a place where it is nearest to the sun, and is the farthest to the sun. As to the earth and the Mars is different with regard to the two places, so the periods on the seasons of the two planets are also different.

Moreover the length on the each season of the earth is almost equal, but the Mars is different, for the orbit on the revolution of the earth is almost a circle, but the Mars is oval.

There is the atmosphere in…

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『Column, except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons in other ones?』

There is the atmosphere in the Mars as well. Its main element is carbon dioxide. Its pressure around the surface is very thin. It’s one hundred fiftieth times as thin as the earth. As a result, the effect on maintaining temperature is so little that there is difference on the temperature between the day and the night. Average temperature around the equator on the Mars is no less than about minus 60 degrees.

Though the atmosphere on the Mars is very thin, there are varied weather phenomenon there. For example…

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『Column, except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons in other ones?』

For example, there was a cloud of steam over a volcano on the Mars. It was often observed, and a typhoon was done around the arctic with the Hubble space telescope.

The polar region is covered with ice on the earth. Likewise, there is the same situation in the Mars. The place which is covered with the ice in the Mars is an ice made up with carbon dioxide is piled on the other ice made up with water.

The size on the ice changes according to a season. It’s discovered by a German astronomer in the 18th century.

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『Column, except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons in other ones?』

The ice becomes small in summer time, and big in winter time.

In addition, a large scale of sand storm is caused in summer time on the Mars. The change on the four seasons on the Mars is more violent than the Earth.

When it is warmed, an upward current is causes, and the upward current causes a monsoon, especially in the are where the place is covered with the ice at the south on the Mars the sand storm occurs often, and the sand storm sometimes spreads over the whole Mars.

On the other hand, the Neptune…

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『Column, except for a planet on the earth, are there four seasons in other ones?』

…it is said the Neptune which is far from the sun and revolves around the sun has also a change on the season. There are images on the Neptune which was taken by the Hubble space telescope in 1996 and 2002.

When comparing two of them, white cloud on the surface of the Neptune increased. Even if it’s far from the earth so much, it reacts with little heat from the sun, so it causes a change on the season in the Neptune, it has been thought like that.

The prologue is over and I’ll start the second chapter.

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【How is a weather formed?】

Various clouds which are made by each season and typical weather in every season are expressed in the prologue. How is the weather phenomenon formed? It is expressed in the second chapter.

A phenomenon in the atmosphere which causes a rain or being fine is called the weather. The tendency on the weather through a year is put together. We call it a climate.

We usually use a phrase on 天気 in Japanese. It’s a situation on the rain or being fine which is caused by the weather phenomenon. How is the weather or the climate which change the 天気 formed? Its element is…

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It’s element is temperature, pressure, and steam.

【How is the weather formed? The balance on the energy of the earth】

All the weather phenomenon like the rain or being fine is caused by the energy from the sun.

It is possible to explain on lots of weather phenomenon with three elements. They are temperature in the atmosphere, the pressure in the atmosphere, humidity which is amount of the steam in the atmosphere. Those three elements are combined and a wind blows and rain starts to fall.

The temperature plays an important role in the three elements. Both of the pressure and humidity…

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【How is the weather formed? The balance on the energy of the earth】

Both of the pressure and humidity depend on the temperature. The source on the temperature is heat energy from the sun.

Let’s suppose the energy which was sent from the sun was 100%. 49% is used for warming the surface on the ground. 20% is used for warming the steam in the cloud and atmosphere. The other is 39%.

22% are reflected against the cloud and 9% is done against the snow on the surface and they return to the outer space.

We continue to accept the solar energy of 69% every day, but the earth doesn’t change into …

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【How is the weather formed? The balance on the energy of the earth】

…but the earth doesn’t change into the global warming limitlessly, for the same amount of energy which are accepted on the ground and on the atmosphere returns to the outer space.

Both of the ground and the atmosphere are warmed by the energy from the sun. At the same time, the same amount of energy is released to the outer space slowly as invisible infrared radiation.

The pressure makes high pressure and low pressure and is related stream on the wind greatly. The steam has something to do with occurrence on the cloud…

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The steam has something to do with occurrence on the cloud with upward current. As for two of them, it is expressed in detail, the author said like that.

『Column, greenhouse effect』

The amount of energy which the earth accepts from the sun and the amount of energy which returns to the outer space is balanced. The energy which is released to the outer space which means the infrared rays is expressed simply so as to understand easily, but it is more complicated actually.

Though the infrared rays are released from the ground, it isn’t released to the outer space directly. Most of the…

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『Column, greenhouse gas effect』

The most part of the infrared rays is absorbed in the atmosphere, and the atmosphere releases the infrared rays to the ground and the outer space. The work on the atmosphere maintains the temperature on the earth, so its average temperature is some 15 degrees.

If there is no air at all, it is said the average temperature on the earth is minus 20 degrees. We call this keeping effect a greenhouse gas effect. The earth has maintains a comfortable environment for creature to exist on account of the atmosphere.

On the other hand, the Mars which revolves outside…

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『Column, greenhouse gas effect』

…the Mars revolves the outside orbit from the earth. It has thin atmosphere, and its average temperature around the equator is minus 60 degrees.

Oh! To my sorrow, I made a mistake again. The situation which maintains the temperature on the earth is green house effect, and material is released which supports the situation. It’s the green house gas effect. I’m afraid I confuses with two of them. I’m sorry.

Main green house gas is steam, carbon dioxide, and methane.

The Venus revolves inside orbit from the earth. Almost all of its atmosphere is made up with…

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『Column, greenhouse gas effect』

The atmosphere on the Venus is made up with carbon dioxide mainly. The carbon dioxide accounts for 96% in the atmosphere. As a result, the temperature on the surface of the Venus is no less than 480 degrees. Its temperature is higher the Mercury which is closer to the sun than the Venus, for the Mercury doesn’t have any of the greenhouse effect by the atmosphere.

The greenhouse gas like the carbon dioxide has increased lately owing to the activity by the human being, the relation between global warming and the greenhouse gas effect becomes a problem recently.

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『Column, the higher the latitude is, the colder it is. Why?』

The average temperature on the earth is some 15 degrees, but there is a great difference on the temperature, according to its place. In general, around the equator is the highest temperature, on the other hand, in the polar region is the lowest one. What causes the difference between the temperature?

The earth is round and is tilted a little. As a result, it doesn’t always mean the sunlight shines all the place equally, so there is difference between temperature on the place.

There is an illustration how the sunlight shines on…

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『Column, the higher the altitude is, the colder it is. Why?』

An illustration shows us how the sunlight shines on the surface of the earth in the book which I’ve expressed just now.

There is a place where the sunlight shines on directly, for it’s right under the sun. It’s around the equation. Moreover, the earth is a sphere, so there is the place where the there is the sunlight directly from the sun, and other place which there isn’t.

The place where the sunlight shines on directly is the equator, so the closer to the equator is, the hotter it is. On the other hand, the farther away from…

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『Column, the higher the altitude is, the colder it is. Why?』

…the farther away from the altitude is, the colder it is.

Considering the way of the same width of the sunlight, the higher the altitude is, the more the amount of heat to the fixed area received is.

Considering the amount of heat is given to the fixed area, we can understand the change in four seasons.

The earth revolves around the sun, and rotates itself. The rotational axis on the earth is tilted at angle of 23.4 degree against the vertical line from the direction of revolution. The inclination on the rotational axis causes…

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『Column, the higher the altitude is, the colder it is. Why?』

The inclination on the rotational axis causes four seasons.

The factor which decides the amount of energy from the surface on the ground is solar altitude and hours of sunshine. The higher the solar altitude is, the more the amount of energy per unit area is. The higher the solar altitude is, the larger the amount of energy received on the ground is. For example, during a daytime the sun is high and it is warm. On he other hand, in the morning and evening, the sun is low, and it is cool.

The longer the hours of sunshine is, the…

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『Column, the higher the altitude is, the colder it is. Why?』

The longer the hours of sunshine is, the longer the time when receiving energy is.

Japan is the north hemisphere. In summer solstice 夏至, roughly speaking, the solar altitude is the highest in a year, so the hours of sunshine is also the longest, as a result, in summer solstice is the day when receiving the most energy from the sun.

On the other hand, in winter solstice, the solar altitude isn’t only the lowest, but the hours of sunshine is the shortest, so the amount of energy receiving from the sun is the least in a year.

But…

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『The higher the altitude is, the colder it is. Why?』

But the hottest day is actually after a month or two month from the summer solstice. Why is there such the time lag?

It doesn’t always mean that the solar energy warms the atmosphere direct. First of all, the surface on the ground which receives the solar energy is warmed, and the heat is given off from the ground which is warmed, so the atmosphere is warmed.

【How is a weather formed? The relation between altitude and temperature】

《The air isn’t warmed by the solar energy but is done by the surface on the ground which is done by the sun》

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【Relation between altitude and temperature】

《The air is warmed by the surface on the ground which is done by the sun》

About half of heat energy reaching to the earth is spent for warming on the ground. The warmed surface on the ground makes atmosphere around the surface on the ground war, this time.

As a result, the higher the altitude is, the lower the temperature is. This tendency continues from the surface on the ground to the height of some 10 km.

For example, the temperature on the surface of the ground is 15 degrees, the temperature on the altitude of 10 km is minus 50 degree.

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【Relation between altitude and temperature】

《The air is warmed by the surface on the ground which is done by the sun》

If the sun warms the surface on the ground, why is the temperature low on the summit of a high mountain like Everest? Someone may have had a question like that. Certainly the summit on the Everest is the closest the surface on the ground to the sun in the world.

But the area on the surface of the ground of the high mountain is equal to a few percent on the one of a plain of which height from 0 to 1000 meters. It’s a thing as if it were a point. Cold air of which temperature…

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【Relation between altitude and temperature】

《The air is warmed by the surface on the ground which is done by the sun》

Cold air of which temperature is below zero surrounds the point, so the point is never warmed at all.

The important thing for weather is the higher it is, the cold it is.

The air around the surface on the ground is warmed by the surface on the ground, so it becomes light, on the other hand, the air overhead is cooled, so it becomes heavy. As a result, the air on the surface of the ground and the air overhead change each other easily.

The change on the air causes various…

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The change on the air causes varied weather phenomenon easily. In short, the temperature which is one of three elements causes aerial current both of upward and downward.

【How is the weather formed? A model on great circulation of the air】

《Hadley thought atmosphere circulated from the equation to the polar region in 18th century》

The sunlight warms the surface on the ground but, the way of warming isn’t always the same. It’s different between the earth and the sea, or between a field and forest.

Pressure which is the second one from the three elements is…

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【A model on great circulation of the air】

《Hadley thought atmosphere circulated from the equation to the polar region in 18th century》

Pressure which is the second one from the three elements is greatly influenced by the way of warming of the air.

In a place where the air is warmed in strong way, the air becomes light and an upward current is causes. Then the air is warmed and it becomes light, so the pressure on the surface of the ground becomes low. It’s low pressure.

When the updraft is caused, the air which was there went up, so the amount of the air which was there decreased.

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【A model on great circulation of the air】

《Hadley thought atmosphere circulated from the equation to the polar region in 18th century》

Thus, the low pressure is caused.

The air which went up overhead is cooled gradually and becomes heavy and changes into a downward current in other place which is different from the upward current blows and returns to the surface of the ground.

As the air is cooled and becomes heavy, the pressure on the ground becomes high. It’s the high pressure.

The air which descended from the overhead to the surface on the ground loses its place to go. As a result, it…

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【A model on great circulation of the air】

《Hadley thought atmosphere circulated from the equation to the polar region in the 18th century》

As a result, the air flows into a place where the pressure is low. Let’s put together the series of occurrence.

Difference on the way of warming causes difference between temperature, the upward current is caused, and the upward current causes difference between the pressure. It’s the low pressure and high pressure. Then wind blows. In short, the pressure is the element which causes the wind around the surface on the ground.

When looking at it in the…

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【A model on great circulation of the air】

《Hadley thought atmosphere circulated from the equation to the polar region in the 18th century》

When looking at it in a global scale, the equation receives lot of heat energy, and upward current is caused there. On the other hand, in the polar region an opposite phenomenon occurs.

George Hadley who was an English meteorologist paid attention to it, and proposed a model of circulation on the air which connected the low pressure in the equation with the high pressure in the polar region.

The atmosphere which went up in the equation moved to the…

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【A model on great circulation of the air】

《Hadley thought atmosphere circulated from the equation to the polar region in the 18th century》

The atmosphere which went up in the equation moved to the polar region through the upper layer. It was cooled in the polar region and went down, and returned to the equation. The circulation continued. Hadley thought like that.

In this model, it means that north wind is always blowing on the surface of the ground in the north hemisphere. When comparing it with a real situation, there was a big contradiction in the model.

『Column, we can really feel…』

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『Column, we can really feel the wind which blows from high pressure to low pressure in summer beach』

I’ve expressed the great circulation on the air which connects the low pressure and high pressure together and is the global case, but the air current which moves from the high pressure to the low pressure isn’t only in the global case, but is close to us. We can feel it.

A typical one that the wind blows from the high pressure to the low pressure is a sea breeze in summer time.

If comparing the land with the sea, the land is warmed easily, so when receiving strong solar radiation in…

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『Column, we can really feel the wind which blows from the high pressure to the low pressure in summer beach』

…so when receiving the strong solar radiation, the upward current is caused and it becomes the low pressure easily. Then cool moist air blows there from the sea where there is the high pressure. It’s the sea breeze.

When going to a place near the sea in summertime, the smell of ocean is sent to us. It is done by the sea breeze.

『Column, the area along a coast is milder than an inland』

In general, the area along a coast is milder than an inland owing to efficiency of the sea breeze.

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『Column, the area along a coast is milder than an inland』

The sea breeze sends cool and moist wind which is low temperature to the land along the coast, so the sea breeze makes the temperature which goes up by the sun drops in daytime.

Moreover radioactive cooling is weakened by vapor brought with the sea breeze at night, so the temperature doesn’t go down suddenly.

On the other hand, as to the inland, while the temperature goes up during the daytime, the temperature goes down at night on account of the radioactive cooling, so the difference the temperature between the daytime and the…

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『Column, the area along a coast is milder than an island』

…so the difference on temperature between the daytime and night, between some seasons forced to be big.

Townsville and Tennant Creek locate in the same latitude in Australia, but the former is in along the coast, and the latter is in an inland, so the difference on average temperature of both of the area is 6 degrees.

By the way, there is neither atmosphere nor sea in the moon, so the influence by the radioactive cooling becomes clear there.

The temperature on the surface on the ground in the moon during the daytime is 120 degrees.

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The temperature at night is minus 160 degrees.

By the way, the phrase of radioactive cooling appears over and over again. What’s it?

I’m going to express it from now on.

【Why does the radioactive cooling happen?】

《The heat on the ground is lost by the radiation, so the temperature goes down》

It’ll get very cold this night due to the radioactive cooling.

The phrase of radioactive cooling frequently appears in a weather forecast in winter like that. The radioactive cooling is a phenomenon that a thing which is high temperature gives off the heat outside, and becomes cool.

When leaving…

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【Why does the radioactive cooling happen?】

《The heat on the ground is lost by the radiation, so the temperature goes down》

When leaving something hot alone like a freshly cooked rice and hot water in bathtub, it becomes cool before long. Its phenomenon is the radioactive cooling, especially in a weather forecast, it means that the heat on the ground is taken by radiation, and the temperature goes down. The ground is warmed by the heat from the sun during the daytime.

On the other hand, the sun doesn’t appear at night, the heat which the ground received from the sun in the daytime returns…

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【Why does radioactive cooling happen?】

《The heat on the ground is lost by the radiation, so the temperature goes down》

…the heat which the ground received from the sun during the daytime returns to the outer space. Then the ground and the air around the ground becomes cool, so the temperature goes down, in particular at night when it is fine, nothing prevents the heat from radiating, so the radioactive cooling goes ahead.

On the other hand, at night when it is cloudy, radiating heat is hindered by the cloud, so the heat is hard to return to the outer space. Moreover cold air is heavy.

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The cold heavy air stays around the ground easily, so the weaker the wind is, the more severe the cold by the radioactive cooling is.

【How is the weather formed? The force of Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the earth, the power turning to the right always works the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

Hadley contrived the model that the air circulated greatly, but it’s not suitable for the real current in the atmosphere. For instance, the high pressure and low pressure are carried by the wind from west and the weather changes around Japan. We know it from an…

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【The force of Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the earth, power turning to the right always works the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

We know it from experiences in the past.

Or wind blows from east in the area of low altitude, so a trade in which they made use of the wind was done in the age of exploration 大航海時代 in the 15th century. We can’t express those currents both of the east and west with the model by Hadley.

So the study on the influence by the rotation was paid attention. It was studied by Gaspard Coriolis who was a scientist in the beginning of the…

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【The force of Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the earth, power turning to the right always works the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

The study was done by Gaspard Coriolis who was a scientist in the beginning of the 19th century. What’s the influence by the rotation?

A thing which moves on the rotating earth changes its direction by receiving the power. The power works the direction of the right which is the direction the earth rotates.

In short, the earth rotates to the right against the earth’s axis, so the power works to the thing for right direction.

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【The force of Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the force, power turning to the right always works to the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

The force on Coriolis was named after the one who studied the force. Why is the power caused? The point is the difference on the speed of rotation according to the latitude.

For example, the length around the equator is about forty thousand kilometers. When rotating once, it takes 24 hours, so its speed is 1675 kph.

On the other hand, for example, at the place where north latitude 50 degrees, its length is some 25850 Kms.

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【The force of Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the force, power turning to the right always work to the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

So, its speed is 1077 kph. The speed on the rotation of the earth at the north latitude 50 degree is slower than the one at the equator.

Let’s suppose there was a hard throwing pitcher who stood on the equator and was a catcher who was at the north latitude 50 degrees. If the pitcher throws the ball at the catcher, though without being aware of it, the ball which the pitcher threw at the catcher would move with violent speed to…

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【The force on the Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the force, power turning to the right always works to the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

…the ball which the pitcher threw at the catcher moved with a violent speed to the eastward. It’s the right to the direction of moving forward with the speed of 1675 kph, but the catcher moved with the speed of 1077 kph, so the ball wouldn’t reach the mitt of the catcher. The ball passed east to the catcher.

Thus when the ball was released from the pitcher, none of the power was added to the ball. Both of the pitcher and…

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【The force on the Coriolis】

《Considering the rotation on the force, power turning to the right always works to the direction of moving forward in the north semi sphere》

Both the pitcher and the catcher were on the earth which rotated then. Without doing nothing, it means that the ball curved to the right for two of them. It looks as if the ball received the power to the right for the direction of moving forward. We call the power the force on the Coriolis.

The more difference on the speed of the rotation by the latitude is, the more the effectiveness is. The pitcher and catcher were…

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The pitcher and catcher were on the location like that so as to make us understand well, but there is little difference on the speed of the rotation at a baseball ground on the earth, so the force on Coriolis is extremely little at a catch ball which is done actually, so no one can be conscious of it.

【How is the weather formed? Trade wind】

《Trade wind which blows from northeast to southwest》

The study on the Coriolis was the most suitable for expressing west wind in the area of the middle altitude, so meteorologists applied the force on the Coriolis to the earth and thought of a model on…

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【Trade wind】

《Trade wind which blows from northeast to southwest》

…and thought of a model on a great circulation by a new atmosphere, and it turned out that three big current of the air are caused by the force of Coriolis. They are trade wind in low latitude, westerlies in middle latitude, and polar easterlies in high latitude. At first there is an expression on the trade wind.

An upward current is born at the equator. The air is carried upward with the upward current, and divided into north and south around overhead. The current which moves toward north in the north semi sphere turns…

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【Trade wind】

《Trade wind which blows from northeast to southwest》

The current which moves toward north in the north semi sphere turns away to the right gradually by receiving the force of Coriolis. Then the heat of the current blowing from the equator is released to the outer space, so the current becomes cool little by little.

When reaching at 30 degrees in the north latitude, the part of the current changed into downward current and returned to the surface of the ground. The current which returned to the surface of the ground moved toward the low pressure on the equator by receiving…

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【Trade wind】

《Trade wind which blows from northeast to southwest》

The current which returned to the surface of the ground moved toward the low pressure on the equator by receiving the force of Coriolis, and went ahead southwest. Thus the current of the air was born. It’s the trade wind.

Its origin of the name is Spanish sailing ships made use of the wind and traded with other countries in the time of the great discovery 大航海時代 from 15th to 17th century. It was convenient for the Europeans to move toward the American area which was southwest to the Europeans.

Needless to say, if taking…

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【Trade wind】

《Trade wind which blows from northeast to southwest》

Needless to say, if taking advantage of the same sea route, when returning, it became a head wind 逆風. Though its size is different basically, it’s the one in the model thought by Hadley, so praising the achievement by Hadley, the current on the air which causes the trade wind is called the circulation on Hadley.

《Westerlies which moves from west to east》

The author expressed the trade wind at the great circulation in the atmosphere around the low latitude. This time it’s the westerlies. It’s the other great circulation in…

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【How is the weather formed? Westerlies】

《Westerlies which moves from west to east》

The westerlies which is the other great circulation on the atmosphere around the middle latitude.

The air which went over the thirty degree of north latitude learns to blow to almost due east by receiving the force of Coriolis. As a result, the current of air which goes around the earth toward east western. It’s the westerlies.

When making use of the wind, the time when being board in airplane is becomes short. For example, the time of an airplane which goes to Tokyo from Europe is shorter by 1 hour than…

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